are strangely similar. Economically, politically, socially. Mark Twain said history does not repeat itself – but it rhymes.
Economic progress
The late 19th century was a time of economic progress. Things looked very much like today with booming business (link):
In 1870, for instance, a national telegraphic service was set up. In 1873, a shipping company that linked Spain and the Philippines daily through the Suez Canal was established. In 1880, a cable was laid down via Hong Kong allowing telegraphic access to the rest of the world. In 1882, running water was introduced into the city of Manila. In 1883, a tramway system was established that was improved upon constantly in the following years. In 1890, the capital was pleased to inaugurate a telephone service that quickly reached the other islands. In 1891 the first railway line was built. In 1895, electricity arrived in Manila, speedily spreading to other parts of the Archipelago. The Manila Observatory, a center established by the Jesuits for scientific research, set up a weather station that was essential for the shipping companies. Parallel to this, sugar refineries were created, foreign capital-Filipino joint ventures flourished in the realm of agro-exports, the Islands received the most recent industrial technologies from Europe and America, and companies as significant as the tobacco-manufacturing Compañía General de Tabacos de Filipinas or the brewery Cervecera San Miguel, destined to great future success, were established. In view of this feverish economic activity, two foreign banks opened branches in Manila, competing with the Banco Español Filipino that had been established in 1851… trade grew from the 2.8 million pesos it was worth in the 1820’s to 62 million pesos in the 1890’s. In other words, commerce grew twenty times its initial value.
The development of this new agro-exporting economy also implied the complete opening up of the Philippines to international free trade and an ensuing increase in foreign interests in the Archipelago. After centuries of theoretical monopolies, during which commercial exchanges were forbidden outside of the narrow limits set forth by the colonial Government (which is not to say that they were completely absent), in 1789 a partial opening up of the Port of Manila was authorized. The Port was to be completely opened to international traffic in 1834. Soon after followed the Port of Iloilo, the Port of Zamboanga, Port Sual and the Port of Cebú. Hence, during those times of the opening up of new communications paths, of steamboats, of transport subsidies, of deregulation of rates, and consequently of increases in trade activities in eastern waters, the Spanish Government embarked upon an increasing free-trader policy that peaked with the Moret Tariff of 1871. This tariff brought the list down to rates that were tax-like, with the aim of stimulating the production and growth of local industries, making the products more affordable and fostering trade. The local production of sugar, manila hemp and other tropical products (save tobacco, which stagnated until 1883) was declared free, and the right of foreigners to acquire properties and set up businesses in the Philippines was endorsed. This novel free-trading approach resulted, on the one hand, in a growing increase of foreign penetration into the Philippines as of the mid-1860’s and into the following years. Trading activities, the establishment of businesses, and international investments in the Archipelago grew notably.
Political reforms
The administration of the colony was modernized, the same link as above from the Spanish National Library provides great insights into a policy that reminds me of Daang Matuwid:
Provincial administrative practices were streamlined, and attempts were made to improve the professional profile of the representatives of the State, to put an end to graft and corruption, and to revitalize the class of civil servants. Also, both the administration of Justice and the functioning of the Treasury were reorganized with the aim of achieving greater degrees of efficiency. The Town and City Councils were restructured, adjusting for a new Filipino involvement in municipal life. Attempts were made to occupy the territory more thoroughly, ensuring the presence of representatives in areas so far not attended to and bolstering it in more exposed locations.
But we all know 1896 brought forth the Revolution – and that the outcome of the present election portends possible change in a direction we may all not be able to foresee. Why was that?
Social changes
From the late 18th century onwards, things changed in the sleepy but stable Philippines. Some important points:
- the galleon trade became less profitable, so the government established monopolies on tobacco and liquor including taxes
- the port of Manila was partly opened to international trade in 1789, fully in 1834, the Suez canal opened in 1867
- agricultural products such as abaca, sugar and tobacco were in demand, enriching new segments of the population
- foreigners mostly from other European countries came to the Philippines from the 1860s onward because of business
- the level of education increased and many Filipinos took advantage of the opportunities – from the same link as above:
For instance, in terms of children whose schooling was provided for, if we compare the Philippines and France in the nineteenth century, in 1840 the ratio in the Philippines was one child in school per 30 inhabitants, whereas in France it was one child per 38 inhabitants. In 1876 there were 1,779 schools with 385,907 children enrolled. According to the Report on Higher Public Education for 1887 (Memoria de la Instrucción Pública Superior), there were 60,492 secondary school students in the Philippines, and over 6,000 higher education students, including those registered in universities, arts and crafts centers, the Naval Academy and Teachers Training College, among others. Finally, other data states that between 1861 and 1898, there were 40,158 students (for the most part Filipinos) enrolled in the University of Santo Tomás. 89% of these students signed up for non-religious studies, resulting in 34% of them studying law, 22% medicine and 22% philosophy. In time many of these students pursued further specialization abroad, studying law, medicine or engineering in European universities.
Spaniards born in the Philippines – the only ones called Filipinos originally – had their Representatives in the Spanish Parliament in the early 19th century, but finally a reactionary government put an end to that in 1837. In the Philippines, mestizos and natives found a glass ceiling with certain positions reserved for Spaniards. Filipinos (creole, mestizo, native) all wanted more – same link:
Affluent Filipinos rapidly perceived their requests to be seconded by the have-nots, a group whose importance was growing quickly.
These underprivileged Filipinos were the irritated farmers and the new urban classes, employees of the administration, or workers in the increasingly numerous private businesses running in the islands. They also included the Philippine secular clergy, who were granted fewer opportunities and functions than the clergy in Spain, as well as groups that had committed to defending the traditional Filipino political order, with its traditions and beliefs, in the face of colonial obligations. Although these different sectors did not form a homogeneous group, and despite the fact that their interests were different, their members coincided in condemning the discrimination they were the object of with regards to their Spanish-born peers and in opposing the colonial regime, with all its implications. Although they expressed their frustration in different ways and by different means, ultimately many of them joined in the revolutionary uprisings that erupted against Spain in 1896.
Sancho Panza
Rizal wrote something very interesting in “The Philippines, A Century Hence” (link) – something similar to many today who warn about reforms that do not yet reach enough people:
In the case of our country, the reforms take the place of the dishes, the Philippines are Sancho, while the part of the quack physician is played by many persons, interested in not having the dishes touched, perhaps that they may themselves get the benefit of them.
The result is that the long-suffering Sancho, or the Philippines, misses his liberty, rejects all government and ends up by rebelling against his quack physician.
Rizal did not know Secretary Abaya. I doubt he even knew Emilio Aguinaldo – he probably was still a cabeza de barangay or barangay captain at that time.
Rizal did know Andres Bonifacio from the Liga Filipina. Bonifacio worked at a German firm in Manila – he was a bit like some of today’s BPO workers in Makati.
History rhymes
Rizal warned those who wanted to make a revolution that independence was premature, and warned the Spaniards to hurry up the reforms. And gave this caveat in El Filibusterismo:
Why independence, if the slaves of today will be the tyrants of tomorrow? And that they will be such is not to be doubted, for he who submits to tyranny loves it.
We all know how it went on. The Revolution started, the hothead Bonifacio died in a power struggle with cold, calculating Aguinaldo who then made a deal with Spain in 1897 – Biak-na-Bato. Aguinaldo wrote letters to the USA from Hongkong and came back with them in 1898, maybe hoping to be their client. America decided otherwise or always had, we will never know the full truth.
Now substitute Spain with America, America with China. The impatience and disunity of Filipinos has remained the same.
- Many ilustrados wanted to preserve the economic and political gains of the late 19th century especially the 1890s.
- It took until 1907 that the Philippine Assembly was elected under US rule after revolution, war, military rule.
- The US took until 1920 to get Mindanao under control and turn it over to the Department of the Interior.
An entire generation had turbulent years. I wonder how history will rhyme from 2016-2040. One generation.
Irineo B. R. Salazar, München, 2. April 2016